Substitution principle

The substitution principle is focused on the substitution of a product, service or process to another that is more efficient or beneficial in some way while retaining the same functionality. The prominent substitution nowadays is replacing a product, process or service in order to better the environment.

This is usually proposed by the environmental groups, although many critics claim that is very difficult to reach an operational scheme, i.e. to implement this in reality especially in terms of legislation.

Grandfathered system

Grandfathered systems: Telecommunication systems that include, but not limited to:

(a) PBX and key telephone systems, directly connected to the public switched telephone network on June 1, 1978, that may remain permanently connected thereto without registration unless subsequently modified, and

(b) systems that are of the same type as those connected to the public switched telephone network on July 1, 1978, that were added before January 1, 1980, and that may remain permanently connected thereto without registration unless subsequently modified.

Maximum sustainable yield

In population ecology, maximum sustainable yield or MSY is, theoretically, the largest yield/catch that can be taken from a species’ stock over an indefinite period. Under the assumption of logistic growth, the MSY will be exactly at half the carrying capacity of a species, as this is the stage at when population growth is highest. The maximum sustainable yield is usually higher than the optimum sustainable yield.

This logistic model of growth is produced by a population introduced to a new habitat or with very poor numbers going through a lag phase of slow growth at first. Once it reaches a foothold population it will go through a rapid growth rate that will start to level off once the species approaches carrying capacity. The idea of maximum sustained yield is to decrease population density to the point of highest growth rate possible. This changes the number of the population, but the new number can be maintained indefinitely, ideally.

MSY is extensively used for fisheries management. Unlike the logistic (Schaefer) model, MSY in most modern fisheries models occurs at around 30% of the unexploited population size. This fraction differs among populations depending on the life history of the species and the age-specific selectivity of the fishing method.

Unfortunately errors in estimating the population dynamics of a species can lead to setting the maximum sustainable yield too high (or too low). An example of this was the New Zealand Orange roughy fishery. Early quotas were based on an assumption that the orange roughy had a fairly short lifespan and bred relatively quickly. However, it was later discovered that the orange roughy lived a long time and had bred slowly (~30 years). By this stage stocks had been largely depleted.

Sthène

The sthène is the unit of force in the metre-tonne-second system of units (mts), invented in France and used in the Soviet Union 1933-1955. The symbol is sn. It is also used measurement in thrust.

1 sn 
= 1 t·m/s²
= 1000 kg·m/s² = 10³ N = 1 kN

Forest Principles

The Forest Principles is the informal name given to the “Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests,” a document produced at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit. It is a non-legally binding document that makes several recommendations for forestry.

At the Earth Summit, the negotiation of the document was complicated by demands by developing nations in the Group of 77 for increased foreign aid in order to pay for the setting aside of forest reserves. Developed nations resisted those demands, and the final document was a compromise.


External links

The full text of the Forest Principles can be found on the United Nations website at http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-3annex3.htm.

RTR

RTR can mean several things:

  • RTR can refer to Rooftop-Retreat http://uepc014.ee.qub.ac.uk/rtr
  • RTRFM RTR FM, an Australian radio station
  • Royal Tank Regiment, the British Army Tank Corps
  • Radio e Television Rumantscha - Rhaeto-Roman Radio and Television
  • RTR is an acronym for Ready to run used in several fields:
    • RTR software refers to plug and play software
    • RTR models refers to pre-assembled items ready to run straight out of the box unlike a kit.
  • Rossijskoe Teleradio - All Russian State Radio and Television
    • RTR can refer to Russia TV Channel
    • RTR-Planeta is a Russian satellite television channel
  • RTR acronym “Really, that’s wrong”
  • RTR can refer to Run-Time Reconfigurable logic
  • RTR can refer to the mod of computer game Rome Total War, Rome Total Realism
  • RTR can also refer to the Russian Tea Room, a New York City restaurant famous for its caviar.
  • RTR can refer to ROLL TIDE ROLL, the rallying cry for the University of ALABAMA’s athletic teams, also known as the Crimson Tide.

User requirements document

The user requirements document (URD) is a document used in software engineering that specifies the requirements the user expects from software to be constructed in a software project.

An important and difficult step of designing a software product is determining what the customer actually wants it to do. What a customer informally says is desired may be incomplete, inaccurate and self-conflicting. The URD is meant to spell out exactly what the software must do and becomes part of the contractual agreement. A customer cannot demand features not in the URD without renegotiating and a developer cannot claim the product is ready if it does not meet an item of the URD.

The URD can be used as a guide to planning cost, timetables, milestones, testing, etc. The explicit nature of the URD allows customers to show it to various stakeholders to make sure all necessary features are described.

Formulating a URD requires negotiation to determine what is technically and economically feasible. Preparing a URD is one of those skills that lies between a science and an art, requiring both software technical skills and interpersonal skills.


See also

  • Product requirements document
  • Marketing requirements document
  • Requirements management

History of rail transport by country


Asia

Malaysia [[1]]


Europe

  • Denmark
  • France
  • Germany
  • Great Britain
  • Ireland
  • Italy
  • The Netherlands
  • Poland
  • Spain
  • Sweden


North America


Oceania

  • Australia


See also

  • History of rail transport
  • Timeline of railway history
  • Timeline of transportation technology

Resource (Java)

In the Java programming language a resource is a piece of data that can be accessed by the code of an application.
An application can access its resources through Uniform Resource Locators, like web resources, but the
resources are usually contained within the JAR file(s) of the application.

A resource bundle is a set of key and value pairs, stored as a resource, that is commonly used to allow the localization of an application. For this purpose different resource bundles with a
common set of keys are used to store translations for the messages and user interface texts of an application.


References

Tailstrike

Tailstrike is an aviation term that describes an event such that the rear end of the aircraft touches (strikes) the runway. This can happen during takeoff of a fixed-wing aircraft if the pilot pulls up too rapidly, leading to the rear end of the fuselage touching the runway. It can also occur during landing if the pilot flares too aggressively. This is often the result of an attempt to land nearer to the runway threshold.

A tailstrike is physically possible only on an aircraft with tricycle landing gear; with a tail dragger configuration, the tail is already on the ground. Some delta wing aircraft, which require a high angle of attack on takeoff, are fitted with small tailwheels to prevent tailstrikes. Examples include the Concorde and Saab Draken. Some aircraft, such as the Diamond Aircraft Industries Diamond DA20, have a permanent skid installed to protect the airframe in the event of a tailstrike. Others may be fitted with a temporary skid as tailstrikes are sometimes purposefully carried out during the certification of new aircraft.

Tailstrike incidents rarely cause significant damage or cause danger, but may cause financial losses as the planes have to be thoroughly inspected and repaired.

However, improper repair to the damaged airframe after tailstrikes accidents are responsible for fatal accidents that occur years later (including the worst single aircraft accident as of 2007) due to structural failure of the airframe at the site of the tailstrike after repeated cycles of pressurization and depressurization at the weak point of improper repair.


See also

Cases of improper repair after a tailstrike causing fatal structural failure in flight years after the tailstrike:

  • Japan Airlines Flight 123
  • China Airlines Flight 611


External Links

  • A380 tailstrike tests - from Airliners.net
  • Boeing 777, Saudi Arabian Airlines - near tailstrike from Airliners.net

Dyad (music)

In music, a dyad is a set of two notes or pitches. Although most chords have three or more notes, in certain contexts a dyad may be considered to be a chord. The most common two-note chord has pitches a perfect fifth apart. This chord may be suggestive of music of the Medieval or Renaissance periods, of various kinds of folk music, or of rock music, especially “hard” rock music, of the 1960’s and beyond. When fifths are missing from major or minor tertian triads, on the other hand, they are generally still considered triads, rather than dyads.

Since an interval is the distance between two pitches, dyads may be classified by the interval each entails. When the pitches of a dyad occur in succession, they may be regarded as forming a melodic interval. When they occur simultaneously, they may be regarded as forming an harmonic interval.

Skyline, Tacoma, Washington

Skyline is a neighborhood located in the north end of Tacoma, Washington, United States. The area is sometimes referred to as “Narrows View,” because of its view of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. The boundaries of Skyline are poorly defined, but it is generally accepted that the center of the area is Skyline Drive. During recent years, house prices have climbed significantly in this area, with view property at a premium.

Bella Vista Ambulance Services

Bella Vista Ambulance Services is a non-profit corporation providing Emergency Medical Services in Bella Vista, Arkansas since 1977. It has a office located at 652 Lancashire Blvd., Bella Vista. In 2004, the Bella Vista Fire Department received 1,403 medical calls.


See also

  • Bella Vista Fire Department


References

  • Bella Vista Ambulance Services Finds New Office – The Morning News
  • Ambulance Service Accepting New Members – Bella Vista Property Owners Association

Image scanning

Document Scanning or Image Scanning is the action or process of converting text and graphic paper documents, photographic film, photographic paper or other files to digital images. This “analog” to “digital” conversion process (A<D) is required for computer users to be able to view electronic files.


See also

  • Image scanner

Allee effect

The Allee effect is a phenomenon in biology characterized by a positive correlation between population density and the per capita growth rate.


Description

The Allee effect was first written on extensively by its namesake Warder Clyde Allee. The general idea is that for smaller populations, the reproduction and survival of individuals decrease. This effect usually saturates or disappears as populations get larger.


Causes

The effect may be due to any number of causes. In some species, reproduction—finding a mate in particular—may be increasingly difficult as the population density decreases. Other species may use strategies (such as schooling in fish) that are more effective for larger populations.


Strong vs Weak Allee effect

A distinction is made between a strong Allee effect, in which there is a population size or density called the critical size/density below which the population declines on average and above which it increases on average, and a weak Allee effect in which there is no critical density, although there is acceleration in population size at small densities.


References

  • Underpopulation (Allee) effects
  • Allee Effect
  • Oxford Evolutionary Biology - What is the Allee effect?

British Rail Class 157

Class 157 was the designation applied to a range of Diesel multiple unit trains planned for regional use, in particular for the Strathclyde Passenger Transport Executive. As well as the class number, British Rail reserved carriage numbers in the 526xx and 576xx series for these units.

Unfortunately, as the Privatisation of British Rail began, this project became unviable as resources were concentrated on the privatisation process, leading to the famous 1064-day ‘drought’ of new train orders. By the time this period was over, plans had moved on and Stratchclyde ended up receiving a batch of Class 170 units.

Enthalpy of atomization

The enthalpy of atomization (also standard enthalpy of atomisation - UK spelling) is the enthalpy change that accompanies the total separation of all atoms in a chemical substance (either a chemical element or a chemical compound). This is often represented by the symbol ΔHatO. The associated standard enthalpy is known as the Standard enthalpy of atomization, ΔHatO/(kJ·mol-1), at 298 K and 1 atmosphere of pressure, or 100 kPa (kilopascals.)

The enthalpy of atomization of gaseous H2O is, for example, the sum of the HO—H and H—O bond dissociation enthalpies. The enthalpy of atomization of an elemental solid is exactly the same as the enthalpy of sublimation for any elemental solid that becomes a monatomic gas upon evaporation.

There is a difference between a solid converting to a gas, and a diatomic gaseous element converting to gaseous atoms. The standard enthalpy is purely based on the production of one mole of gaseous atoms.

Nuclear density

Nuclear density is the density of the nucleus of an atom, averaging about 1018 kgm-3. The descriptive term nuclear density is also applied to situations where similarly high densities occur, such as within neutron stars.

The nuclear density in a typical nucleus can be calculated from the size of the nucleus. The radius of a typical nucleus is
<math>R=A^{1/3}r_0</math>
where <math>r_0</math> is 1.25 fm, with deviations of 0.2 fm from this value. The nucleons density <math>n</math> satisfies

<math>{4\over 3} \pi n R^3 = A</math>

Therefore <math>n = {3\over 4\pi {r_0}^3} = 0.122 fm^{-3} = 1.22 \cdot 10^{44} m^{-3}</math>.
The mass density given above is the product of this by the nucleon mass <math>1.67 10^{-27} kg</math>.

The components of an atom and of an atomic nucleus have varying densities. The proton is not a fundamental particle, being composed of quark-gluon matter. Its size is approximately 10-15 meters and its density 1018 kgm-3. Using deep inelastic scattering, it has been estimated that the “size” of an electron, if it is not a point particle, must be less than 10-17 meters. This would correspond to a density of roughly 1021 kgm-3.

Probing deeper within particles, one finds quarks which appear to be very dense and very hard. There are possibilities for still higher densities when it comes to quark matter, gluon matter, or neutrino matter. In the immediate future, the highest experimentally measurable densities will likely be limited to leptons and quarks.


See also

  • Nuclear equation of state
  • Nuclear matter
  • Quark-gluon plasma
  • Nuclear compressibility

Oldenburg (horse)

The Oldenburg is a breed of horse originating in Germany. They are most popular for use today in the sports of dressage and show jumping.


The History

The Oldenburg was first bred in Lower Saxony, Germany. The foundations were first laid by Count Johan von Oldenburg in the late 16th century. He bred Friesian mares with Danish, Turkish, Neopolitan, and Andalusian stallions to produce large war horses. His son, Count Anton, travelled Europe and brought home the finest Spanish and Italian stallions, to add speed and strength. His tenant farmers were also allowed to breed from his stallions, establishing the tradition of small, private studs that is still common with the breeders in that region today.

In the 17th century, the Oldenburg became a well-known coach horse, admired for its height, power, and elegance. It was also used as a riding horse. In the 18th century, Thoroughbred blood was added to refine the breed. In 1820, it became illegal to use any but a government-approved stallion for breeding, but it wasn’t until1861, that the Oldenburg stud book was established. In 1897, Oldenburg breeders brought Thoroughbreds, Cleveland Bays, Yorkshire Coach Horses, Normans, and some Hanoverians to further improve the breed.

In the earlier part of the 20th century, the Oldenburg was still being used as a high-stepping coach horse, as well as on farms. But as machinery replaced horse power, the stud owners decided to breed for an all-around riding horse. In the 1950s, the Thoroughbred Lupus and the Anglo-Norman Condor founded a new Oldenburg stallion line, which produced heavy but elegant mares. From that point, only the finest of European livestock have contributed to the breed. Thoroughbreds were used first to refine the Oldenburg, then Trakehners, Anglo-Normans, Anglo-Arabians, Selle Francais, Hanoverians, and Westphalians. The resulting horse is an excellent sport horse that is more refined than its predecessors.


The Oldenburg Today

The Oldenburg has been especially successful in the dressage arena. Famous dressage horses include Donnerhall and Gestion Bonfire, as well as Relevant.


Registry

To be approved for breeding, a stallion must be certified by a licensing commission from the Oldenburg breed society. Several hundred horses are inspected at the age of 2.5, and the best 75-85 horses are then placed through a 3-day test, judged on their conformation and type. On the final day, the best of this smaller group are then chosen to be graded, with the most excellent earning the title of “Premium Stallion.”

The graded horses are then taken to a 100-day testing, which judges the stallions on performance. This includes temperament, rideability, jumping ability, endurance, speed, and movement. Poor performance will prevent the horse from being approved for the final breeding stock status.

Mares must also be inspected for breeding purposes, being placed in one of (4) Mare Books. Inspection is inhand, on the triangle first at trot then at walk. Overall scores plus pedigree requirements dictate which book the mares will enter into.

Foals are inspected as sucklings or weanlings for foal papers, their original pink papers which verify parentage and breeding.

The Oldenburg Verband (Oldenburg Horse Breeders Society) is the original registry for Oldenburger horses world wide.


Breed Characteristics

The Oldenburg have a range of types within the breed. But all Oldenburg stock are chosen for their athletic ability, calm temperament, and strength. They are breed specifically for use as sport horses, and excel both in show jumping and in the dressage arena. The horses have several characteristics that are found in most of the world’s sport horses of today: a sloping shoulder, long neck, and strong hindquarters. The breed comes in a variety of colors, although bay, black, and brown are the most common. The horses are usually 16.1-17.2 hands high, and are generally very trainable. They are not noted for speed, and have high knee-action from their carriage-horse days, but this does not detract from their abilities as a showjumper.


External links

  • Oldenburg Verband
  • Oldenburg Verband-North America
  • Oldenburg Resistry of North America
  • Alt-Oldenburger Verband

Peachtree Accounting

Peachtree Accounting is business management software published by Sage Software and sold primarily in the United States. There have been several generations of software sold under the Peachtree Accounting name.

Peachtree Accounting was originally sold by Peachtree Software, a software publisher founded in 1975 by Jim Dunion with the first software published in 1976. Peachtree was acquired by the Sage Group in 1998 for USD $145 million. Peachtree was the first business software introduced for microcomputers and the oldest microcomputer software program for business in current use, with the possible exception of the original Microsoft Basic interpreters, also introduced in 1975.


See Also

  • Comparison of accounting software


External links

  • Peachtree website

M-120 (Michigan highway)

M-120 from Hesperia to Muskegon, was commissioned in 1969, and was originally part of M-20 until that road was relocated to New Era and US 31.

The current route starts at BUS US 31 where Muskegon Lake and the Muskegon River meet. As it crosses the river, it is known as the Veterans Memorial Causeway, with Veterans Memorial Park between the northbound and southbound sections of the road. This road continues north as Whitehall Road, which connects Muskegon to Whitehall (the former US 31 before the freeway was built). At Whitehall Road, M-120 turns east on Holton Road and continues in a northeastern direction. At Maple Island Road, the road heads north to Hesperia.

Historical Notes: In the 1930’s, M-120 was designated on a road from US 16 for about a mile at the northwest corner of Lansing before being redesignated on a road that runs parallel to the Michigan-Ohio state line, and connected with Ohio SR 120 on its east end and Indiana SR 120 on its west. In 1961, the M-120 designation was retired again until its current designation. The Ohio and Indiana 120 highways are still in place today with only the county road (Old 120) in Michigan connecting them.


External links

  • M-120 Endpoint Photos
  • Former M-120 Terminus (@ Ohio 120)
  • Former M-120 Terminus (@ Indiana 120)


References

Yudit

(Yudit is an alternative spelling of Gudit, a Felasha queen who sacked the Ethiopian imperial capitol of Axum around the year 960 AD.)

Yudit is a unicode text editor for the X Window System. It was first released on 1997-11-08. It can do TrueType font rendering, printing, transliterated keyboard input and handwriting recognition with no dependencies on external engines. Its conversion utilities can convert text between various encodings. Keyboard input maps can also act like text converters. There is no need for a pre-installed multi-lingual environment. Menus are translated into multiple languages.

The author of Yudit is Gáspár Sinai, a Hungarian programmer, living and working in Japan.


See also

  • List of text editors
  • Comparison of text editors


External links

  • Yudit homepage

Borel’s paradox

Borel’s paradox (sometimes known as the Borel-Kolmogorov paradox) is a paradox of probability theory relating to conditional probability density functions. The paradox lies in fact that, contrary to intuition, conditional probability density functions are not invariant under coordinate transformations.

Suppose we have two random variables, X and Y, with joint probability density pX,Y(x,y). We can form the conditional density for Y given X,

<math>p_{Y|X}(y|x) = \frac{p_{X,Y}(x,y)}{p_{X}(x)}</math>

where pX(x) is the appropriate marginal distribution.

Using the substitution rule, we can reparametrize the joint distribution with the functions U= f(X,Y), V = g(X,Y), and can then form the condition density for V given U.

<math>p_{V|U}(v|u) = \frac{p_{U,V}(u,v)}{p_{U}(u)}</math>

Given a particular condition on X and the equivalent condition on U, intuition suggests that the conditional densities pY|X(y|x) and pV|U(v|u) should also be equivalent. This is not the case in general.


A concrete example


A uniform distribution

We are given the joint probability density

<math>p_{X,Y}(x,y) =\left\{\begin{matrix} 1, & 0 < y < 1, \quad -y < x < 1 - y \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise} \end{matrix}\right. </math>

The marginal density of X is calculated to be

<math>p_X(x) =\left\{\begin{matrix} 1+x, & -1 < x \le 0 \\ 1 - x, & 0 < x < 1 \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise}\end{matrix}\right. </math>

So the conditional density of Y given X is

<math>p_{Y|X}(y|x) =\left\{\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{1+x}, & -1 < x \le 0, \quad -x < y < 1 \\ \\ \frac{1}{1-x}, & 0 < x < 1, \quad 0 < y < 1 - x \\ \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise}\end{matrix}\right. </math>

which is uniform with respect to y.


Reparametrization

Now, we apply the following transformation:

<math>U = \frac{X}{Y} + 1 \qquad \qquad V = Y.</math>

Using the substitution rule, we obtain

<math>p_{U,V}(u,v) =\left\{\begin{matrix} v, & 0 < v < 1, \quad 0 < u \cdot v < 1 \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise} \end{matrix}\right. </math>

The marginal distribution is calculated to be

<math>p_U(u) =\left\{\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2}, & 0 < u \le 1 \\ \\ \frac {1}{2u^2}, & 1 < u < +\infty \\ \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise}\end{matrix}\right. </math>

So the conditional density of V given U is

<math>p_{V|U}(v|u) =\left\{\begin{matrix} 2v, & 0 < u \le 1, \quad 0 < v < 1 \\ 2u^2v, & 1 < u < +\infty, \quad 0 < v < \frac{1}{u} \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise}\end{matrix}\right. </math>

which is not uniform with respect to v.


The unintuitive result

Now we pick a particular condition to demonstrate Borel’s paradox. The conditional density of Y given X = 0 is

<math>p_{Y|X}(y|x=0) = \left\{\begin{matrix} 1, & 0 < y < 1 \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise}\end{matrix}\right. </math>

The equivalent condition in the u-v coordinate system is U = 1, and the conditional density of V given U = 1 is

<math>p_{V|U}(v|u=1) = \left\{\begin{matrix} 2v, & 0 < v < 1 \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise}\end{matrix}\right. </math>

Paradoxically, V = Y and X = 0 is equivalent to U = 1, but

<math>p_{Y|X}(y|x = 0) \ne p_{V|U}(v|u = 1).\;</math>


References

  • Jaynes, E. T., 2003, Probability Theory: The Logic of Science, Cambridge University Press.


See also

  • Émile Borel

System identifier

A system identifier is a document processing construct introduced in the HyTime markup language as a supplement to SGML. It was subsequently incorporated into the HTML and XML markup languages.

In HyTime, there are two kinds of system identifier: formal system identifier (FSI) and simple system identifier.

In HTML and XML, a system identifier is a fragmentless URI reference. It typically occurs in a Document Type Declaration. In this context, it is intended to identify a document type which is used exclusively in one application, whereas a public identifier is meant to identify a document type that may span more than one application.

In the following example, the system identifier is the text contained within quotes:

<!DOCTYPE html SYSTEM "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">

JustSaveFoods

Just Save Foods is a small supermarket chain in North Carolina, U.S.A.

The Just Save Foods store in Kannapolis was fined $2,000 for price-scanning errors in 2003.Salisbury Post, Friday, Octber 27, 2006 – “Salisbury Wal-Mart fined for price-scanning errors”

The company is or was controlled by Lowes Foods, also known as Lowe’s Food Stores, Inc., a unit of Alex Lee.
Santella and Associates, quoting Progressive Grocer’s 50 largest supermarket chains for the year 2002


Locations

  • Eden
  • Kannapolis
  • Lexington
  • Shelby


External links

Lee, Inc.

  • Lowes Foods

  • References

    Turnaround document

    A turnaround document is a document that has been output from a computer, some extra information added to it, and then returned to become an input document. For example, meter cards are produced for collecting readings from gas meters, photocopiers, water meters etc. These are filled in by the customer and then returned to the company for scanning using ICR (Intelligent Character Recognition) so that the system can produce the bills for the customer.

    Tidal scour

    Tidal scour is an erosion process which is carried out by the tidal movement of water.
    Examples of this hydrological process can be found in many areas of the world. Two locations in the United States where tidal scour is the predominant shaping force is the San Francisco Bay and the Elkhorn Slough. Many other coastal areas around the world are shaped by this process.

    Zygapophysis

    A zygapophysis is a process which sticks out of an end of a vertebra to lock with a zygapophysis on the next vertebra, to make the backbone more stable.

    Each typical vertebra has 4 of them: two front (prezygapophysis) and two back (postzygapophysis), two left and two right. Its plural is “zygapophyses”.

    Its origin is Greek ζυγον = “yoke” (because it links two vertebrae) + απο = “away” + φυσις = “process”.


    See also

    • Zygapophysial joint


    External links

    16550 UART

    The 16550 UART (universal asynchronous receiver transmitter) is an integrated circuit designed for implementing the electrical interface for serial communications. It is frequently used to implement the serial port for IBM PC compatible personal computers, where it is often connected to an RS-232 interface for modems, serial mice, printers, and similar peripherals.

    The part was originally made by National Semiconductor. Similarly-numbered devices, with varying levels of compatibility with the original National Semiconductor part, are made by other manufacturers. A UART function that is register-compatible with the 16550 is usually a feature of multifunction I/O cards for IBM PC-compatible computers, and may be integrated on the motherboard of other compatible computers.

    Replacement of the factory-installed 8250 UART was a common upgrade for owners of IBM PC, XT, and compatible computers when high-speed modems became available. At speeds higher than 9600 baud, owners discovered that the serial ports of the computers were not able to handle a continuous flow of data without losing characters. Exchange of the 8250 (having only a one-byte received data buffer) with a 16550, and occasionally patching or setting system software to be aware of the FIFO feature of the new chip, improved the reliability and stability of high-speed connections.

    Main features of the 16550 include:

    • Convert data from serial form to parallel, and parallel form to serial, using shift registers.
    • An on-chip bit rate (baud rate) generator to control transmit and receive data rate.
    • Handshake lines for control of an external modem, controllable by software.
    • An interrupt function to the host microprocessor.
    • An on-chip FIFO buffer for both incoming and outgoing data; this gives the host system more time to respond to an interrupt generated by the UART, without loss of data.

    Both the hardware and software interface of the 16550 are backward compatible with the earlier 8250 series and 16450 UART. The current version (since 1995) by National Semiconductor is called the 16550D.


    References


    External links

    • Data Sheet for the 16550D UART (PDF)

    Comm

    The comm command in Unix is a utility that is used to compare two files. It shows common lines in one column and differing lines in separate columns for left and right files. This functionally is similar to diff.

    One notable difference between comm and diff is that comm will not try to indicate that a line has “changed” between the two files; lines are either shown in the “from file #1″, “from file #2″, or “in both” columns. This feature can be especially useful if one wishes two lines to be considered different even if they only have subtle differences.

    comm also has options to suppress any of the three columns which is useful for a scripting.


    See also

    • Comparison of file comparison tools
    • List of Unix programs


    External links

    Resonator mode

    In the resonator mode, the plasma density does not exceed the
    critical density.
    A standing electromagnetic wave, which is confined by a
    resonator cavity, penetrates the plasma and sustains it in the regions of highest field
    intensity. The geometry of this region determines the spatial distribution of the plasma. Plasmas excited in resonator mode are less resistant against detuning, for instance by the insertion of electric probes (Langmuir probes) or electrically conducting samples compared
    to surface-wave plasmas. There, the high plasma density better shields disturbing potentials.

    American Standard

    American Standard may refer to:

    • American Standard, a brand of American Standard Companies Inc.
    • American Standard, an album by the post-grunge rock band Seven Mary Three.
    • The American Standard, a book by Blane Covert.
    • The American Standard Version (ASV) of the Bible.

    Majority carriers

    Majority carrier denotes the carrier which is primarily responsible for current transport in a piece of semiconductor. If an intrinsic semiconductor (which does not contain any impurity) is doped with N-type impurity then the majority carriers are electrons and if the semiconductor is doped with P-type impurity then the majority carriers are holes.

    Harald Fuchs

    Harald Fuchs (born 1951) is a Professor of Experimental Physics at the University of Münster, Germany, Scientific Director of the Center of Nanotechnology (CeNTech) in Münster, and co-director of the Institute of Nanotechnology (INT) in Karlsruhe. His research focuses on nanoscale science and nanotechnology, ranging from scanning probe microscopy to self organized nanostructure fabrication, and nano-bio systems. He has published more than 250 scientific articles in various journals as an author or co-author. He was awarded the Philip Morris Research Prize “Challenge Future” in 1994 and the Münsterland Innovation Prize in 2001. He is currently a member of various scientific organizations including the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina. He holds two guest professorships in China. He is a cofounder of several nanotechnology companies and a member of the Editorial Boards in several international journals.


    publications

    • H. Fuchs, Rastersondenmikroskopie Bergmann-Schaefer, Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, Band 3: “Optik”, 10. Aufl., S. 1133-1159, ISBN 3-11-017081-7, de Gruyter Verlag (2004)
    • H. Fuchs, H. Hölscher, A. Schirmeisen , Scanning Probe Microscopy, Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, S. 1-12, ISBN 0-08-043152-6, Elsevier (2005)
    • H. Fuchs, Nanotechnologie-Chance oder Risiko? Akademie Journal S.48-54 1 (2004)


    Weblinks

    • Uni Münster
    • CeNTech
    • Nanotechnologie Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe

    LSM (Zeiss)

    LSM is a line of confocal laser scanning microscopes produced by the Zeiss company. As of 2005, the state of the art is the 5th generation, including the LSM 510, LSM 5 Pascal, and LSM 5 Live.

    LSM models produce a file format with the filename extension “.lsm”. There are different generations of this file format depending on the generation of the microscope model, but all are essentially extensions of the TIFF multiple image stack file format.


    File format details

    These are technical details intended for use by scientists trying to write code to read LSM files.

    At least in the 5th generation LSM format, important extensions to the normal TIFF format are:

    1. An additional set of image directory entries (IFD entries are a standard part of the TIFF format that normally describe the individual images in a stack) starting at byte 8 of the file, after the standard TIFF header. This directory is mostly redundant with the standard TIFF image property directories that are included with the individual image data. One important special entry in this directory is the entry with tag code 34412, which provides the byte address within the file for an additional set of headers.
    2. The additional set of headers pointed to by IFD entry 34412 includes more redundant information about the image files. More importantly, it includes byte address offsets for a number of important data blocks within the file.
    3. One offset address provided in the additional headers is the location of the “scaninfo” directory. The scaninfo directory is a long series of entries organized in hierarchical subgroups providing most of the relevant settings used for the scanning run. The scaninfo directory is dynamic in length; it includes metadata entries that indicate what level of the hierarchy is being traversed. The end of the directory is reached when the metadata entries indicate traversal backwards past the “root” level of the hierarchy.

    See external links below for code examples of reading LSM files.


    External links

    • Zeiss USA home for LSM products includes a download for the free LSM Image Browser, a nice software for reading LSM file settings and exporting the image data (proprietary, closed source).
    • LSM-Reader is a plugin for the ImageJ program, an image processing toolkit written in Java and released by the NIH. If you want to see code examples for reading LSM files, check out the .jar file available here.
    • If you cannot open the .jar file suggested above, here is the raw Java code of a much earlier, out of date version.
    • There is also an IDL plugin to read LSM 4.x and 5.x data file. From the webpage you even have access to the specification of File Format Description - LSM 5xx.
    • The Huygens Software in freeware mode can read and convert LSM files.

    Turnaround document

    A turnaround document is a document that has been output from a computer, some extra information added to it, and then returned to become an input document. For example, meter cards are produced for collecting readings from gas meters, photocopiers, water meters etc. These are filled in by the customer and then returned to the company for scanning using ICR (Intelligent Character Recognition) so that the system can produce the bills for the customer.

    Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon

    Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon is a compact Swedish dictionary of biography first published in 1873-1876 by the physician and antiquarian Herman Hofberg (1823-1883). The second, updated edition was published in 1906, under the editorship of Frithiof Heurlin, Viktor Millqvist, and Olof Rubenson. The second edition, two volumes of all together 1,445 pages, contains 4,419 articles on families and individuals, “renowned Swedish men and women from the reformation until the present times”, and more than 3,000 miniature portraits.


    External links

    • Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon, digitized facsimile, at the Project Runeberg website

    Wiggler (JTAG)

    A wiggler is a parallel port interface for either JTAG or BDM debugging. Slower than a Raven, it is however a stable, easy to use device.

    The wiggler is a low-cost interface used in the design, debug, and programming of microprocessor and microcontroller based embedded systems. One side of the Wiggler interfaces to the parallel port of a host (like an IBM compatible PC) and the other side connects to an OCD (On-Chip Debug) port of the target system. This port may be JTAG, E-JTAG, OnCE, COP, BDM, or any of several other types of connections.

    Code conversion

    In telecommunication, the term code conversion has the following meanings:

    1. Conversion of signals, or groups of signals, in one code into corresponding signals, or groups of signals, in another code.

    2. A process for converting a code of some predetermined bit structure, such as 5, 7, or 14 bits per character interval, to another code with the same or a different number of bits per character interval.

    In code conversion, alphabetical order is not significant.

    Negative photocopy

    A negative photocopy inverts the colors of the document when creating the photocopy resulting in letters that appear white on a black background instead of black on a white background. Negative photocopies of old or faded documents sometimes produce documents which have better focus and are easier to read and study.

    TDM-to-packet conversion

    TDM-to-packet conversion is the process of converting a digital signal in TDM format (typically a 64 Kbit/second signal encoded with mu-law or A-law compression) into packets (typically RTP packets) for carrying over a packet network such as the Internet.

    The conversion process may include recoding with a different codec, silence suppression, comfort noise generation and other tricks that can decrease the bandwidth requirement or improve the perceived voice quality of the result.

    Note that this is a conversion of the signal, not a tunnelling, unlike TDM over IP, which aims at transporting a TDM signal unchanged across an IP network.

    See also Voice over IP.


    References

    PCMag encyclopedia of IT terms

    Hocket

    In music hocket is the rhythmic linear technique using the alternation of notes, pitches, or chords. This is opposed to the alternation of phrases, or antiphony. In medieval practice of hocket, the melody in two voices moves (sometimes quickly) back-and-forth in such a manner that one voice is still while the other moves, and vice-versa.

    In European music, hocket was used primarily in vocal music of the 13th and early 14th centuries. It was a predominant characteristic of music of the Notre Dame school, during the ars antiqua, in which it was found in sacred vocal music. In the 14th century, the device was most often found in secular vocal music.

    The phrase originated from its use to describe medieval French motets but is commonly used in contemporary music (Louis Andriessen’s Hoketus), popular music (funk, stereo panning), Indonesian gamelan music (interlocking patterns shared between two instruments — called imbal in Java and Kotekan in Bali), Andean siku (panpipe) music (two pipe sets sharing the full number of pitches between them), and many African cultures such as the Ba-Benzélé (featured on Herbie Hancock’s Watermelon Man, see Pygmy music), Mbuti, Basarwa (Khoisan), and Gogo (Tanzania).


    References

    • Tagg, Philip. Hocket, Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World
    • Musical example from Cent Motets du XIIIe Siècle, vol. I, Paris, 1908, 64-65.


    See Also

    • Louis Andriessen’s Hoketus.
    • Kecak, Balinese performance piece also known as the Ramayana Monkey Chant.

    Multifocal Multiphoton Microscopy

    By exploiting specific properties of pulsed-mode multiphoton excitation the conflict between the density of the foci, i.e. the degree of parallelization, and the axial sectioning has been resolved. The basic idea is that the laser pulses of neighboring foci are temporally separated by at least one pulse duration, so that interference is avoided. This method is referred to as time-multiplexing (TMX). Moreover, with a high degree of time multiplicity, the interfocal distance can be reduced to such an extent that lateral scanning becomes obsolete. In this case axial scanning is sufficient to record a 3D-image.

    [Technical Details]

    Thames scramasax

    The Thames scramasax is a 9th century weapon, recovered from the Thames at Battersea, London. It bears a Futhorc inscription. The row of 28 runes,

     f  u  þ  o  r  c  ȝ  w  h  n  i  io  eo  p  x  s  t  b  e  ŋ  d  l  m  j  a  æ  y  ea

    is the only known instance of an epigraphical futhorc series. The ior rune io appears to have switched places with the ger j and edhel œ is missing altogether. It is the only epigraphical attestation of the ea rune.

    In addition to the futhorc, the name Beagnoþ

    is inscribed.


    See also

    • Anglo-Saxon rune poem


    External links

    • http://www.homestead.com/englishheathenism/scramasax.html

    Bomb tower

    A bomb tower is a lightly constructed tower, often 100 to 700 feet (30 to 210 meters) high, built to hold a nuclear weapon for an above ground nuclear test. The tower holds the bomb for the purpose of the investigation of its destructive effects (such as burst height and distance with given explosive yield) and for the adjustment of measuring instruments, such as high-speed cameras. Normally, the bomb tower disintegrates completely on detonation due to the enormous heat of the explosion (up to 20 million degrees Fahrenheit or 10 megakelvins).